This is only a preview of the May 2010 issue of Silicon Chip. You can view 29 of the 96 pages in the full issue, including the advertisments. For full access, purchase the issue for $10.00 or subscribe for access to the latest issues. Items relevant to "A Solar-Powered Lighting System":
Items relevant to "Build A Compact 12V 20W Stereo Amplifier":
Items relevant to "Low-Power Car/Bike USB Charger":
Items relevant to "Digital Audio Signal Generator, Pt.3":
Articles in this series:
Purchase a printed copy of this issue for $10.00. |
Vintage Radio
By RODNEY CHAMPNESS, VK3UG
Automatic gain control (AGC) –
what it is & why it’s necessary; Pt.1
Manufactured around 1948, the Astor GR/GRP receiver was a simple
3-valve TRF receiver. It had no AGC and featured a simple volume
control which varied the back-bias on its 6G86 variable-mu RF valve.
W
HEN RADIO (or “wireless”)
first made its appearance, it was
necessary for receivers to use every
bit of RF (radio frequency) and audio
frequency gain available. However,
as receivers became more sensitive
and gains improved, this situation
quickly changed. Receivers became
much more capable of pulling in weak
signals but there was one drawback. If
a receiver was tuned to a weak signal,
the gain then had to be manually reduced when tuning to a strong station
in order to produce the same audio
output level or volume.
On a set with a loudspeaker, there
would be a burst of quite loud and
probably distorted audio until the
volume control was hastily wound
84 Silicon Chip
back. That was bad enough but if the
listener was using headphones, their
ears would be ringing for quite some
time afterwards.
Once caught, most listeners would
turn the volume control down while
they tuned across the band. This meant
that strong stations were easily heard
but it had the disadvantage that weak
stations might be inaudible. So it
was a compromise as to just how far
the volume control was wound back
while tuning.
DXing
In the early days of radio, many listeners became interested in the hobby
of “DXing” which involved receiving
and identifying distant stations. Of
The development
of AGC (automatic
gain control)
circuits in the late
1920s and early
1930s was an
important milestone
in domestic radio
receiver design. It
allowed stations to
be received at the
same volume when
tuning across the
band, regardless of
signal strength.
course, these stations were much
weaker than any local stations and it
was all too easy to get a sudden loud
burst of sound from the loudspeaker
as one of the local stations was tuned.
Coupled with the inevitable static
crashes, this ran the distinct risk of
not only damaging the loudspeaker but
also frightening hell out of the listener
(and any innocent bystanders). Permanent damage to the listener’s hearing
was also possible if headphones were
being used.
To minimise this problem, it was
therefore necessary to keep one hand
on the volume control as the set was
tuned. That made tuning receivers
with no AGC (automatic gain control)
a rather tedious and awkward job.
siliconchip.com.au
In the simpler receivers, the regeneration control acted as the volume
control but more complex receivers
did have a separate audio-stage volume control. In fact, many of the more
complex receivers were likely to have
both audio and RF stage gain controls.
Another problem with early receivers was the variations in audio level
due to signal fading. At night, the
signal strength from a distant station
often varied continuously, from almost
non-existent at times to quite high at
other times. This signal “fading” was
inevitable and forced the listener to
continuously vary the volume control
to keep the audio at an almost constant
level.
Distant stations were also likely to
suffer from selective fading which
introduced considerable distortion
on AM signals. Unfortunately though,
AGC cannot overcome this particular
problem. It can be overcome to a large
extent by using phase-locked single
sideband (SSB) reception but this is a
specialised technique that’s used more
in communications equipment rather
than in domestic receivers.
Enter automatic gain control
In summary then, the problem was
how to stop the set from blasting the
listener out of the room on strong signals while still allowing weak signals
to be received at usable volume. The
answer was Automatic Volume Control (AVC) or as we more accurately
call it today, Automatic Gain Control
(AGC).
Basically, AGC works by automatically reducing the gain of the receiver
when a strong signal is received. The
stronger the signal, the greater the AGC
action. As a result, the audio output
is kept reasonably constant for all
stations regardless of signal strength.
AGC was invented in the US in 1925
by Harold Wheeler but did not come
into common usage until well into the
1930s. However, some late-model TRF
The Mullard Meteor 600 4-valve receiver (circa 1947) was another economy
receiver with no AGC. The volume was controlled by varying the backbias to the first two valves (both variable-mu types) in the line-up (ie, to the
ECH35 converter & EBF35 IF amplifier stages).
(tuned radio frequency) receivers using sharp cut-off valves did use AGC
circuits. This was not particularly successful as only a very limited amount
of AGC could be achieved before the
valve cut off completely.
The designers understood that varying the bias on the valves could alter
the gain to some degree. The problem
was that the gain of sharp cut-off valves
does not vary a great deal until the
valve is actually near cut-off. Once
the valve is near cut-off, very little
increase in the bias voltage is needed
to fully cut it off and reduce its gain
(or amplification) to zero.
When these valves are near cut-off,
distortion, overloading and various
spurious signals are generated. This
makes listening to an AGC-controlled
set with a sharp cut-off valve rather
unpleasant. This can occur if, say, a
6AU6 is plugged into the valve socket
for an RF or IF stage designed to use a
6BA6 with AGC. The cut-off voltage
for the 6AU6 is between -4V and -6V,
depending on the operating conditions
set for the valve. However, it is around
-20V for a 6BA6.
The main difference between these
two valves is the structure of the signal grid. The 6AU6 has a grid which
consists of close, evenly-spaced turns
of wire. By contrast, the 6BA6 has
closely-spaced turns of wire at each
end of the grid structure, with the
spacing widening towards the centre
of the grid. This is known as a “variable mu” valve.
Progressive cut-off
In operation, as the negative voltage on the grid of a variable mu valve
increases, it progressively cuts off the
electron flow at the ends of the grid
structure. Eventually, with increasing
negative bias, only a small section in
the middle of the valve is left to do
Looking for real performance?
•
•
•
•
160 PAGES
From the publis
hers of
Learn how engine management systems work
23 CHAPTE
RS
Build projects to control nitrous, fuel injection and turbo boost systems
Switch devices on and off on the basis of signal frequency, temperature and voltage
Build test instruments to check fuel injector duty cycle, fuel mixtures and brake & temperature
Price: Aust. $A19.80 plus $A10 P&P ($A12 P&P NZ; $A18 P&P elsewhere) – see the order form in this issue. Order by
phoning (02) 9939 3295 & quoting your credit card number; or fax the details to (02) 9939 2648; or mail your order with
cheque or credit card details to Silicon Chip Publications, PO Box 139, Collaroy, NSW 2097.
siliconchip.com.au
Intelligent
turbo timer
I SBN 0958522
94
-4
TURBO BO
OST
&
nitrous fuel cont
9 78095
8
522946
$19.80 (inc GST) NZ
$22.00 (inc GST)
rollers
How engine
management
works
May 2010 85
First marketed in 1954, the AWA
Radiola 653P was a 5-valve portable
with simple AGC applied to the RF
amplifier and converter stages.
the amplifying. However, because the
remaining grid structure is so open,
large AGC voltage variations now
cause only relatively small changes
to the plate signal, compared to when
the entire valve is operating.
As a result, the gain is progressively
and smoothly reduced as the grid bias
increases.
Remote cut-off valves
Two early remote cut-off RF tetrodes
were the 35 and 51. Introduced around
1931, they were nearly identical and
became the 35/51. Basically, they were
an adaptation of the sharp cut-off 24
but with a variable-pitch grid.
In operation, the 24 required just
-8V of bias to cut it off but the 35/51
required around -40V. In addition, the
latter’s gain was reduced smoothly as
the bias increased.
The 39/44 RF pentodes with remote
cut-off characteristics appeared a little
later, followed by the 58. More modern
valves with remote cut-off characteristics include the 78, 6D6, 6U7G,
6K7, 6SK7, 6AD8, 6AR7GT, 2B7, 6B7,
6B8G, 6G8G, 6BA6, 6BH5, 6BY7 and
the 6N8. The relevant battery valve
types include the 1D5GP, 1C4, 1M5G,
1P5G and 1T4.
The AGC voltage
Having established that varying the
negative bias on a remote cut-off valve
would alter its gain, it was necessary to
come up with a method of developing
this control voltage. The device that
found almost universal favour to do
this was the humble diode detector.
Some receivers did use valves that
acted purely as diode detectors, eg,
the 6H6 and the 6AL5. However,
valve envelopes were expensive and
as the manufacturers became even
more innovative, they included one
and sometimes two signal diodes in
the same envelope as an audio triode.
Basically, the cost of producing a valve
with two diodes and a triode was not
much more than the cost of producing
a single-function valve.
The 55 and the 85 are two such
triode/diode valve types. In each case,
the triode section was similar to the
proven 27 valve. They were successful
and this prompted the development of
similar valve types, some even including tetrode or pentode elements.
The 55 and 85 are not the same,
however, as their triode gains are quite
different. The 85 has a gain of about
six while the 55 (or, in its octal guise,
the 6SQ7GT) has a gain of about 60 in
a practical circuit. Other valves that
proved successful in the duo-diode
audio triode role are the 2A6, 6B6G.
6BD7 and the 6AV6.
The duo-diode audio triode valve
suited the standard 5-valve superhet
receiver, which used a converter, an
IF (intermediate frequency) amplifier,
a combined detector and first audio
stage, an audio output valve and a
rectifier. By contrast, economy sets
using just four valves omitted the first
audio amplifier. As a result, in these
sets, the detector and AGC diodes
were incorporated into the IF amplifier
valve, eg, the 6AR7GT, 6G8G, 6AD8,
6N8 and EBF35 (to name a few).
into VIDEO/TV/RF?
Television & Video
Technology – by KF Ibrahim
New edition has a full and
compre-hensive guide to
NEW LOW PRICE! video and TV tech-nology
including HDTV and DVD,
$
58 starting with fundamentals.
$
70
DVD Players and Drives
$
95
NEW LOW PRICE!
$
85
– by KF Ibrahim
DVD technology and applications - ideal for engineers,
technicians, students,
installation and sales staff.
Practical Guide To
Satellite TV – by Garry Cratt
The book written by an Aussie for
Aussie conditions. Everything you
need to know – including
what you cannot do! 7th ed.
$
49
Hands-On Zigbee – by Fred Eady
$
96
50
NEW LOW PRICE!
$
75
An in-depth look at the
clever little 2.4GHz wireless
chip that’s starting to be
found in a wide range of
equipment from
consumer to industrial.
There’s something to suit every
RF fan in the SILICON CHIP
reference bookshop: see the
bookshop pages in this issue
$
75
RF Circuit Design
– by Chris Bowick
A new edition of this classic RF
text - tells how to design
and integrate RF components
into virtually any circuitry.
NEW LOW PRICE!design
74
$
Practical RF H’book
– by Ian Hickman
A reference work for technic90 ians, engineers, students and
NEW LOW PRICE! the more specialised enthusiast. Covers all the key topics in
$
73 RF that you need to understand.
$
! Audio ! RF ! Digital ! Analog ! TV ! Video ! Power Control ! Motors ! Robots ! Drives ! Op Amps ! Satellite
86 Silicon Chip
siliconchip.com.au
Silicon Chip
Binders
REAL
VALUE
AT
$14.95
PLUS P
&
P
The impressive 5-band STC Capehart A8551 radiogram dates from the mid1950s and uses eight valves plus a magic-eye tuning indicator. It is also fitted
with a very effective delayed AGC system.
One or two audio output pentodes
had diodes built into them too, such
as the 6BV7.
Early problems with AGC
Once suitable valves had been developed, AGC certainly kept the audio
output level reasonably constant, even
with wide variations in signal level. It
made normal signal level fading much
easier to accept but “selective” fading
still made listening to distant stations
difficult. It did take set designers a few
years to get AGC systems working really well, however.
One early problem brought about
by AGC occurred because of the way
some people tuned their sets. AGC
meant that the audio output level
remained virtually the same even if
the station was slightly mistuned. As
a result, many users had difficulty
in accurately tuning their sets even
though a mistuned station resulted in
audible distortion and sibilants and
was unpleasant to listen to (I know
because my father could never get it
right, so I’d sneak up and retune the
set when he wasn’t looking).
Eventually, some manufacturers
solved this problem by fitting “magiceye” valves to many of the up-market
siliconchip.com.au
receivers. The pattern on the magic eye
indicated the correct tuning position.
Another early problem with AGC
was that it emphasised the hiss, crackles, pops and other forms of interference when tuning between stations.
That’s because the sets were at their
most sensitive when tuning between
stations due to the increased gain. As
a result, set manufacturers came up
with various schemes to minimise
this problem.
These schemes invariably used the
AGC voltage to forward bias a valve
or diode in the signal path when the
signal exceeded a preset level. However, although these systems worked,
any station that was only just strong
enough to reach the threshold would
give distorted audio. In addition, if the
RF signal strength was fading up and
down, it may be heard quite well for a
short time but then, as it faded down
below the threshold level, the audio
would suddenly disappear before suddenly reappearing again as the signal
level increased.
This system is called “Quiet Automatic Gain Control”, or QAGC. And
although it wasn’t particularly successful on early domestic receivers,
variants of it are still used in com-
These binders will protect your
copies of S ILICON CHIP. They
feature heavy-board covers & are
made from a dis
tinctive 2-tone
green vinyl. They hold 12 issues &
will look great on your bookshelf.
H 80mm internal width
H SILICON CHIP logo printed in
gold-coloured lettering on spine
& cover
H Buy five and get them postage
free!
Price: $A14.95 plus $A10.00 p&p
per order. Available only in Aust.
Silicon Chip Publications
PO Box 139
Collaroy Beach 2097
Or call (02) 9939 3295; or fax (02)
9939 2648 & quote your credit
card number.
Use this handy form
Enclosed is my cheque/money order for
$________ or please debit my
Visa Mastercard
Card No:
_________________________________
Card Expiry Date ____/____
Signature ________________________
Name ____________________________
Address__________________________
__________________ P/code_______
May 2010 87
Photo Gallery: Fisk Radiola Model R49G
ceiving an extremely weak signal. In
practice, however, this did not really
cause a problem, as it was quite practical to slightly reduce the standing bias
on the AGC-controlled valves to make
up for this. In these sets, a single diode
usually performed the dual function
of detector and AGC diode.
By contrast, delayed automatic
gain control (DAGC) uses two diodes
– one as the detector and the other as
the AGC diode. The detector circuit
is usually the same as in sets with
simple AGC.
DAGC is obtained by biasing the
second diode so that it does not conduct until the signal voltage applied
to it is above a preset level (usually
between -2V and -3V). The AGC bias
developed once that level is reached
is then applied to the AGC-controlled
valves in much the same manner as
for simple AGC. However, by delaying the application of AGC until the
preset level is reached, DAGC allows
a receiver to amplify weak signals at
full gain.
Early servicing problems
R
ELEASED IN 1939, the AWA Fisk Radiola Model R49G was a 4-valve batteryoperated receiver that operated on the broadcast band. It was housed in an
attractive wooden cabinet, had an IF (intermediate frequency) of 460kHz and
included following valve line-up: 1C6 converter, 1D5G IF amplifier, 1K6 IF amplifier, detector, AGC & audio amplifier and 1D4 audio output. Photograph by Kevin
Poulter for the Historical Radio Society of Australia (HRSA). Phone (03) 9539
1117. www.hrsa.net.au
munications receivers. However, it is
now called “Mute” or “Squelch” and
even some domestic FM receivers
use a muting circuit to reduce noise
between stations.
To overcome the limitations of
QAGC, a number of manufacturers
designed receivers with preset tuning. However, although the idea was
fine, this meant that the frequency
stability of the local oscillator had to
be very good, otherwise the set would
eventually drift off station. When this
happened, the oscillator had to be serviced, which was very inconvenient
and costly for the owner.
Mechanical preset tuning was
subsequently used extensively in car
radios in the 1960s but by then oscil88 Silicon Chip
lator frequency stability was much
better than in 1930s receivers.
Simple & delayed AGC
Initially, AGC circuits were of the
simple variety, in that as soon as a
signal, no matter how weak, was presented to the diode detector, a bias was
applied to the AGC line. This meant
that the receiver’s gain on even quite
weak signals was reduced. In fact, the
noise picked up by the antenna when
the receiver was tuned off-station
was often enough to generate some
AGC bias and this was used in some
receivers as the standing bias for the
AGC-controlled valve stages.
It might seem poor design to reduce
the gain of a receiver when it is re-
In earlier times, radio servicemen
were mostly self-taught. As a result,
many didn’t understand AGC circuits
and so were reluctant to work on them.
There was a widespread belief in the
trade that they were difficult to work
on but this was mainly due to their
lack of knowledge and adequate test
equipment.
What made it hard was that AGC
circuits have high resistance values
and the average serviceman had ineffective instruments for testing them.
As a result, servicemen often had to
guess whether this part of the circuit
had a problem in it.
Remember also that components
were expensive in those days. When
I was servicing back in the late 1950s,
my wages were $18 per week and a
standard RF valve cost $2 or $3. Capacitors were around 15 cents each,
so radio parts in earlier times were
much more expensive in relation to
the average wage. These days, we can
afford to replace multiple components
when tracking down a fault but that
technique wasn’t economic until the
1980s.
Next month, we’ll take a look at a
variety of AGC circuits and describe
how they work. We’ll also take a look at
some of the faults which can be found
SC
in such circuits.
siliconchip.com.au
|